Table of Contents
Environmental Conservation...Ch. 6
-World Forests/Case Study
-Grasslands
-Parks and Preserves
Foods and Agriculture...Ch. 7
-Global Trends
-How Much Food Do We Need/Eat?
-Soil
-Agriculture and Farming/Case Study
Water.....................Ch. 10
-Water Resource/Case Study
-Major Water Compartments
-Water Pollution
Environmental Geology and Earth Resources...Ch. 11
-Earth's Make Up
-Economic Resources
-Hazards/Case Study
Environmental Conservation
World Forests
Between Forests and Grasslands they occupy almost 60% of global land cover. These ecosystems provide many of our everyday resources, such as lumber, paper pulp, and grazing lands for livestock. They also provide and help with regulating climate, controlling water runoff, providing wildlife habitat, purifying air and water, and supporting rainfall. Savannas include woodlands whose trees cover less then 20% of the area and closed-canopy forests are where tree crowns cover most of the ground. The largest tropical forest is in the Amazon River basin. The highest rates of forest loss are in Africa. Old-growth forests are those that cover a large area and have been undisturbed by human activities long enough that trees can live out a natural life. Forests only cover about half the land they once did, and only 1/4 of those have old-growth features. Wood is the most important commodity we have today. It is used in almost every industry somewhere between manufacturing and marketing. Monoculture forests are large plantations of single-species, single use, intensive cropping. About 1/4 of our forests are Monoculture forests, used for cropping. A variety of factors contribute to deforestation. This means any area that has been logged. Only about 14% of all world forests are in some sort of conservation status. That sure doesn't seem like a lot!
The case study in Ch. 10 is a great example of a forest being saved. the coast of British Columbia is hoe of the Great Bear Rain forest. Even though only about 1/3 of this rain forest will be untouched of the 15.5 million acres, that is still a lot. The other 2/3 will only be used for sparatic cutting, not complete clear cutting. The trees here often live for around 1000 years. It is awesome knowing places like this actually exist, even though the chances of many visitors are not forecasted.
Grasslands
Besides forests, grasslands are among the biomes most heavily used by us. Prairies, savannas, steppes, open woodlands, and other grasslands occupy about 1/4 of the worlds land surface. Out of that, about half, is used for grazing and raising livestock. Overgrazing is damage to vegetation and soil, including loss of native forage species and erosion. Lack of enforcement and regulations has resulted in overgrazing. This is a major problem in our areas especially, the southwest. Ranchers are experimenting with new methods. They are using rotational grazing(keeping them for a day or two in a small area then shifting them to new areas). This stimulates the effects of wild herds. Different species also like to forage more efficiently, so they bring them into the areas as well. The ranch where I work is always rotating our angus and planting different types of grass.
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Parks and Preserves
Most societies set aside some natural areas for aesthetic and recreational purposes. These natural preserves have existed for thousands of years. It has really developed more in the last 50 years though. There are about 52 million acres in 122,000 different parks/preserves that are protected. There are 5 different categories of protection of these areas. These range from little or no human impact to high human impact. Venezuela has about 66% of all it's land protected, wow! Brazil has more then 1/4 of the worlds tropical rain forest. They have about 2.5 million km squared protected. This is the largest area in the world that is protected. Even though these areas are protected or saved it doesn't always mean they are safe from harm, they still have their exploitation and problems. Marines also need to be preserved but only a small 5% of the 14% protected is near shore marine biomes. Some countries are establishing marine reserves to protect coral reefs. Also some fishing spots are being closed for several months at a time to benefit form the restoration of marine populations. So while the level of protection in preserves varies, the rapid recent increase in number and area in protected status exceeds the goals of the United Nations
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Foods and Agriculture
Global Trends
Food production has been transformed from small-scale to a competitive global market. The changes have brought increased production, lowered food prices, and affordable meat. We even use edible corn and sugar to run some cars now. While we continue to produce in surplus hunger remains a problem. Africa remains the largest number of countries with food shortages. About 1 in 8 people on earth suffer from chronic hunger, how could this be? This number grows due to population growth and is mostly in areas of developing countries(95%). With all this food us Americans are still lacking a balanced, healthy diet. Food security is the ability to obtain sufficient, healthy food on a day to day basis. This is the goal we are working towards for everyone. Global widespread hunger arises when political instability, war, and conflict take place. A famine is a widespread large scale food shortage. Famines often take longer then the food shortage to recover from.
How much Food do we need/eat?
A good balanced diet is essential to staying healthy. It is estimated that almost half the world suffer from vitamin, mineral, or protein deficiencies. A balanced diet consists of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and red meat and carbs should be consumed sparingly. Malnourished is the term for people who have imbalances caused by lack of specific nutrients. This could cause low resistance to disease or infections, suffering from permanent debilities in mental as well as physical development. At the other end overeating is becoming a big problem, and not just in the richer countries, it is spreading around the world. Over half the american population is overweight. Obese is when we are more then 20% over our ideal weight. Being overweight causes lots of problems for our bodies as well including: hypertension, diabetes, heart attack, stroke, gallbladder disease, osteoarthritis, respiratory problems, and some cancers. Hunger is not due to lack of production. Americans throw away about 40% of produced food away!
Of the thousands of edible plants and animals in the world only a few provide almost all of our food. Wheat and rice are especially important because they are staple foods for most of the 5 billion people in developing countries. Here in the U.S. corn and soybeans are primary crops for us. Globally we consume twice as much dairy then meat. Meat and dairy consumption has quadrupled in the last 40 years with China representing about 40% of that increase. The CAFO, confined animal feeding operation has made this possible. Animals are housed and fed, mostly soy and corn. for rapid growth. These operations have made the U.S. dominate livestock raising. Around the world we eat about 140 million metric tons of seafood annually. Seafood is an important part of our diets, and is the main source of protein for a lot of people in developing countries. Seafood being caught is declining due to the destructive technology dwindling resources away. We need to establish better international agreements on fisheries. Aquaculture is helping increase the worlds seafood. This also however has some concerns arising about the harms it can cause to the ecosystem surrounding it. We have to consider how to remain healthy, get the foods we like, and stop draining resources in the process.
Soil
Soil is not just dirt, contrary to what some of us think. Healthy soil is a substance with astonishing complexity, containing mineral grains, organic molecules, and a host of living organisms. The 6 components of soil are sand and gravel, silts and clays, dead organic material, soil fauna and flora, water and air. Bacteria and fungi are primarily responsible for providing the nutrients plants use to grow. Erosion can carry away a lot of soil, even under the best conditions. Terracing helps control erosion on hillsides. The health of the soil ecosystem depends on the environmental conditions like climate, topography, and material. The levels of soil are topsoil, zone of leaching, subsoil, and weathered parent material. They all set on top of the parent material. Our food mostly comes from the topsoil. There are a total of 11 classified soil orders, even though there are thousands of different types of soil.
Agriculture and Farming
Only about 11% of the earths land area is in agriculture production. Land surveys say that much more land can be used for agriculture but not all should be, being that it is much more valuable in its natural state. Agriculture both causes and suffers from environmental degradation. Farming accelerates erosion, about 25 billion metric tons are lost to croplands every year. Wind and water also move soil. Remember soil is only part of the picture when it comes to agriculture, it is also dependent upon water, nutrients, and favorable climates in order to grow! Agriculture has its up and down with modern oil ran crops, fertilizer boosting, and risky pesticides. All of this does take an impact to our soil.Organic production seems to be the way to go in all aspects but tends to be costly. Agriculture both causes and suffers from environmental degradation. Farming accelerates erosion, about 25 billion metric tons are lost to croplands every year. Wind and water also move soil. Remember soil is only part of the picture when it comes to agriculture, it is also dependent upon water, nutrients, and favorable climates in order to grow! Agriculture has its up and down with modern oil ran crops, fertilizer boosting, and risky pesticides. All of this does take an impact to our soil.Organic production seems to be the way to go in all aspects but tends to be costly. Although we should really take a look at low-input sustainable agriculture benefiting farmers, consumers, and the environment. Preserving small-scale family farms also helps preserve rural culture. Family farms help keep rural towns alive by purchasing Machinery at eh local implement dealer, gas at the neighborhood station, and groceries at the mom and pop store.
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In the Ch. 11 Case Study Brazil is conflicted in many ways. Brazil is the leading soy exporter and beef exporter. The conflict of how land should be used for cropland or pasture is the leading cause of the deforestation and and habitat loss. The small family farms are being bought up and machines are taking the place of workers, leaving around 600,000 families to resettle. Of the 600,000 tens of thousands are still looking to settle while squatting at unauthorized camps.
Water
Water Resources
It shapes the earth's surface and moderates our climate. Water is essential for life. It is the Medium in which all living processes occur. Water dissolves nutrients and distributes them to cells, regulates body temperature, supports structures, and removes waste products. About 60% of your body is water. You could survive without food for a while but must have water. In short, clean freshwater is one of our most vital natural resources and is very scarce. The water we use cycles endlessly through the environment. The water evaporates from moist surfaces, falls as rain or snow, passes through living organisims, and returns to the ocean in a process known as the hydrologic cycle. Plants play a major roll in the hydrologic cycle by absorbing groundwater and pumping it into the atmosphere by transpiration. Solar energy drives the hydrologic cycle by evaporating surface water, which becomes rain and snow. Most of the worlds rainiest regions are tropical because heavy rains occur or coastal mountain regions. The windward sides of mountain ranges are typically wet and have large rivers in the areas known as the rain shadow. Most of the wetter areas are near the equator, which is why all the rain forests are along the equator.
Case Study from Ch. 10 tells us that Lake Mead is running dry. When will this occur? Estimates show 2017 if we don't make some drastic changes. Of the 7 states pulling from this water, they must come up with some sort of restrictions, plans, or new outlets for water. I think people in these areas should have holding tanks to do their watering and irrigation. It would also help capture some of the water, very little water, that actually comes from here...not just runs through here from the north. I think individuals should be notified as well so they can start making smaller changes that will add up into a big amount of water being saved. This is a problem that not only the southwest is being faced with but the entire world!
Major Water Compartments
On average, a water molecule stays in the ocean for about 3,000 years before it evaporates and goes through it's cycle again. Almost all of our worlds water is in the ocean. What we mainly need is fresh water. Unfortunately only about .02% of the worlds water is accessible to us and other organisms that rely on fresh water.The winter snowpack on the western slope of the Rocky mountains provides 75% of the flow in the Colorado river. Groundwater makes up the largest compartment of liquid, fresh water. the groundwater within 1km of the surface is more then 100 times the volume of all lakes, rivers, and reservoirs combined. Plants get moisture from the shallow layer of soil containing both air and water. It is called the zone of aeration. In lower soil layers the pores are filled with water, making up the zone of saturation. The water table is the top of the zone of saturation, the source of most wells. Geologic layers that contain water are aquifers. Free flowing wells and springs are artesian wells or springs. Fresh flowing surface water is one of our most precious resources. We compare the size of rivers in terms of discharge. This is done by the measurement of water that passes a fixed point in a given amount of time. Worldwide, lakes are almost as important as rivers in terms of water supplies, food, transportation, and settlement. Wetlands play a vital role in the cycle too. Their lush plant growth stabilizes soil and holds back surface runoff. This allows time for infiltration into aquifers. Basically all of our freshwater resources play a major role in us having something to drink.
Water Pollution
Any physical, biological or chemical change in water quality that adversely affects living organisms or makes water unsuitable for desired uses can be considered pollution. Point sources discharge pollution from specific locations. These sources are discrete and identifiable, so they are relatively easy to monitor and regulate. Nonpoint sources of water pollution have no specific location where they discharge into a particular body of water. They are much harder to monitor and regulate than point sources because their origin is hard to identify. Altogether, at least 25 million deaths each year are blamed on water related diseases. Nearly 2/3 of the mortalities of children under 5 in poorer countries are linked to these diseases. The main source of these pathogens is untreated or improperly treated human wastes. In developed countries, sewage treatment plants and other pollution control techniques have reduced or eliminated most of the worst sources of pathogens in inland surface waters. In less developed countries conditions are especially bad in remote, rural areas where sewage treatment does not exist. If any coliform bacteria are present in a water sample the EPA
considers the water unsafe for drinking.
Eutrophic means well nourished water. Human activities can greatly accelerate eutrophication, an effect called cultural eutrophication, caused by increased nutrients in the water. Currently the most widespread toxic metal contamination in the U.S. is mercury. It is released from incinerators and coal burning power plants. In all a total of 45 states have had to issue warnings about eating fish due to this problem. Some soils contain salt, there are good and bad salts. Toxic selenium and arsenic can be found in some...on the other hand ordinary table salt is not harmful at low concentrations. The 2 main sources of toxins in water are improper disposal of industrial/household wastes and pesticide runoff from landscaping. The EPA estimates that about 26,000 hazardous waste sites will require cleanup because they pose a threat to public health, mostly through water pollution.
It has almost become habit to drink bottled water. Every year the U.S. buys about 28 billion bottles of water equaling about $15billion, thinking that it is safer than tap water. Most large cities test their water supplies every 24 hours for up to 25 different chemicals and pathogens. The requirements for bottled water are less rigorous, making it not any safer then tap water. It's estimated in China that 2/3 of bottled water tested positive for dangerous levels of pathogens. Not so sure about those bottles anymore huh? Even though the plastic is recyclable only about 20% actually gets recycled in the U.S. and the rest end up in the garbage...like we need more garbage? So in most cases the bottled water is expensive, wasteful, and often less safe than most tap waters.
Environmental Geology and Earth Resources
Earth's Make Up
Many People are exposed to geologic hazards. We all benefit form the earth's geological resources though! The earth is a layered sphere. The core, interior, is composed of a dense, super hot mass of mostly iron metal, thousands of kilometers in diameter. It is solid in the center and has more fluid in the outer core. Surrounding the core is a hot layer of rock called the mantle. Finally the last layer is the crust. Huge convection currents in the mantle are thought to break overlying crusts into a mosaic of huge blocks called plates. These plates slide across the earths surface crashing into new larger landmasses. Magma, the molten rock, is forced up through cracks form new oceanic crusts that pile up underwater in mid ocean ridges. Even though concealed from our view these large mountain ranges are the largest in the world. A mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic solid with a specific chemical make up and a specific internal crystal structure. Minerals are solids. A rock is a solid, each grain retaining its own unique mineral qualities. Rocks have been classified into 3 parts: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks are solidified from hot lava, including most of the earths crust rock. Metamorphic rocks from the melting and contorting then recrystalizing of other rocks. Sedimentary rocks form when loose grains of other rocks are consolidated by time and pressure.
Economic Resources
The earth is rich in mineral variety. Mineralogists have identified around 4,400 different mineral species. We believe this to be far more than on any neighboring planet. Most of our minerals are oxides, with oxygen being released by photosynthetic organisms, triggering evolution of our great variety of minerals. Economic mineralogy is the study of resources that are valuable for manufacturing and trade. The United States mining law passed in 1872 encourages mining on public lands as a way of boosting the economy and utilizing natural resources. Metals are malleable substances that are useful and valuable because they are strong, lighter, and can be reshaped. Nonmetal minerals cover a broad class of resources of gemstones, sand, gravel, salts, limestone, and soils. Gemstones and precious metals store and transport wealth causing bankrolled deposits, criminal gangs, and terrorism in many countries. Modern society functions on energy produced from deposits of oil, coal, and gas. Nuclear energy provides about 20% of our electricity. Even though we need to start researching and putting to use more green, renewable resources like wind, solar, hydropower, biomass, and geothermal energy. Everyday we depend on these resources from around the world. The most obvious effects of mining and well drilling is often the disturbance or removal of the land surface, along with water and air pollution. There are many techniques for resource removal surrounded by controversy in the U.S. For now it is left up to the EPA to clean up the mess.
Conservation offers great potential for extending our supplies of economic minerals and reducing the effects of mining and processing. Some waste products already are being exploited. Aluminum, being one, are being recycled so it takes only 1/20 of the energy then making new aluminum. We can see why so many save and recycle these cans today. Minimills remelt and reshape scrap iron and steel. They are cheaper to operate then mills producing new materials. Minerals and metal consumption can be reduced by new materials or new technologies developed to replace traditional uses. Iron and steel have been the backbone for heavy industry, but we see now we are moving toward polymers and new high tech materials to be more green.
Hazards
Earthquakes, volcanoes, floods, and landslides are normal earth processes. These events have made our world what it is today, however, when they affect us they can be the most feared disasters. Earthquakes are sudden movements in the earth's crust that occur along faults, where one rock mass slides past another one. They frequently occur along the edges of tectonic plates. Modern building codes in earthquake zones attempt to prevent damage and casualties by constructing buildings that can withstand tremors. Volcanoes and undersea magma vents are the sources of most of the earth's crust. Over millions of years gaseous emissions from these sources formed the earth's earliest oceans and atmospheres. Disastrous mudslides are also associated with volcanoes. Volcanic eruptions often release large volumes of ash and dust into the air. Floods are normal events that cause damage when we get in the way. As rivers carve and shape the landscape, they build broad floodplains. Among direct natural disasters, floods take the largest number of human lives and cause the most property damage. More then $25 billion of river control systems have been built along the Mississippi and its tributaries. Under current rules, the government is obligated to finance most levees and flood control structures. Landslides are sudden collapses of hillsides. In the U.S. landslides and related mass wasting cause over a billion in property damage every year. Often people are unaware of the risks they face by locating on or under unstable hillsides. Gullying is the development of deep trenches on more flat ground. Beach erosion occurs on all sandy shorelines because the motion of the waves is constantly redistributing sand and other sediments. Construction on beaches and barrier islands can cause irreparable damage to the whole ecosystem. Geologic hazards represent major threats. Understanding these forces and processes that create both geologic hazards and resources is important for us to exist.
http://vi.sualize.us/tag/catastrophy/ accessed on 3/6/2012
An earthquake in Haiti is the topic of Ch. 11 Case Study. This earthquake left estimates of 220,000 killed, 300,000 injured, more than 1 million people homeless and 3 million suffering. Earthquakes can be catastrophic, even though they usually only happen every few centuries. The building codes in Haiti are poorly enforced, and the government was not and probably will never be prepared to offer assistance to their people. The economic costs and benefits of geological resources are equally important in human affairs.
