Table of Contents
Chapter 12 Energy
Renewable Energy in China
Energy Resources and Uses
Fossil Fuels
Energy Conservation
Chapter 8 Environmental Health and Toxicology
Defeating the Fiery Serpent
Environmental Health
Toxicology
Movement, Distribution, and Fate of Toxins
Chapter 15 Environmental Policy and Sustainability
The Clean Water Act
Environmental Policy and Law
Major Environmental Laws
How are policies Made?
International Policies
What Can Individuals Do?
Energy
Renewable energy in China
Environmental Health and Toxicology
Defeating the Fiery Serpent
or Dracunculus Mediensis
One prominent example of the extensive application of renewable energy in China is the city Rizhao. It has around 3 million inhabitants and is located in a favorable geographic location in the south-eastern Shandong province, with a coastline of hundred kilometers and an abundance of resources available. Since 15 years the city has made enormous efforts to promote the large scale and efficient use of renewable energies-with a proven record of success. Today its coastline is spotted with photo voltaic cells and roof tops are for most parts covered with solar panels. Street lights, traffic signals and park illuminations are powered by photo voltaic solar cells and an amazing 99% of Rizhao’s households use solar water heaters.
The strong will of the government of Rizhao and the solar industry to adopt the new solar practice were the essential starting point in the energy restructuring program. In order to support the development of renewable energy technologies, the provincial government closely works together with the local solar panel industry. It provides subsidies to the industry as well as funds the research and development to make the solar water heater industry more competitive and thus lowering the costs of appliances. Additionally to these incentives, legislations were inaugurated. Today the city mandates that all new buildings incorporate solar panels and also oversees the construction process in order to ensure proper installations. To involve the citizens into the process, measures are in place to convince people of the concept. Open seminars are held on the topic and public advertising are run on television, for example promoting the purchase of cars with small displacement. Also does the government administration take serious action on their behalf to demonstrate their willingness to participate in the scheme: resource-conserving and environmental products are purchased, the use of electricity, paper and water was is cut down and air-conditioner settings are adjusted to an adequate level. Rizhao successfully combined incentives, legislative tools and public education in order to encourage a large-scale and efficient use of renewable energy. Rizhao means sunshine in Chinese, How appropriate! Even the farmers are on board with going green (as shown below).
http://www.unep.org/climateneutral/Default.aspx?tabid=205 Accessed on 4/26/12
Energy Resources and Uses
Solar power, that's obvious, but the energy in coal originally came from the Sun too. Prehistoric plants stored the Sun's energy in their leaves, and when they died and eventually formed coal seams, that energy was still there. So when we burn coal (or any fossil fuel), we're releasing chemical energy that was stored in plants millions of years ago. The same goes for Wind and Wave power. Waves occur because of winds, and winds blow because the Sun warms our atmosphere. Warm air tends to rise, and winds are due to other air moving in to replace it.Most power stations burn coal, oil or natural gas to run the generators. Others use uranium, or the flow of water. Electricity is sent around the country using high-voltage power lines. Nearly all of the power we use comes from large power stations, although some places such as isolated farms, or hospitals, have their own diesel generators.
In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of work or energy is the Joule (J). For very small amounts of energy, the erg (erg) is sometimes used. An erg is one ten millionth of a Joule:
1 Joule = 10,000,000 ergs</dd> Power is the rate at which energy is used. The unit of power is the Watt (W), named after James Watt, who perfected the steam engine.
http://www.eoearth.org/article/AP_Environmental_Science_Chapter_1-_Flow_of_Energy Accessed on 4/26/12
1 Watt = 1 Joule/second</dd>
Power is sometimes measured in horsepower (hp):
1 horsepower = 746 Watts</dd>
Electrical energy is generally expressed in kilowatt-hours (kWh):
1 kilowatt-hour = 3,600,000 Joules</dd>
It is important to realize that a kilowatt-hour is a unit of energy not power. For example, an iron rated at 2000 Watts would consume 2 x 3.6 106 J of energy in 1 hour.
Heat energy is often measured in calories. One calorie (cal) is defined as the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water from 14.5 to 15.5 ºC:
1 calorie = 4.189 Joules</dd>
Today, we make use of various sources of energy found on earth to produce electricity. Using machines, we convert the energies of wind, biomass, fossil fuels, water, heat trapped in the earth (geothermal), nuclear and solar energy into usable electricity. The above sources of energy differ in amount, availability, time required for their formation and usefulness. For example, the energy released by one gram of uranium during nuclear fission is much larger than that produced during the combustion of an equal mass of coal.
http://www.eoearth.org/article/AP_Environmental_Science_Chapter_1-_Flow_of_Energy Accessed on 4/26/12
An energy sink is anything that collects a significant quantity of energy that is either lost or not considered transferable in the system under study. Sources and sinks have to be included in an energy budget when accounting for the energy flowing into and out of a system.
Fossil Fuels
Coal, oil and gas are called "fossil fuels" because they have been formed from the organic remains of prehistoric plants and animals. Coal is crushed to a fine dust and burnt.Oil and gas can be burnt directly. Coal provides around 29% of our energy, and oil provides 35%. Burning coal produces sulphur dioxide, an acidic gas that contributes to the formation of acid rain. This can be largely avoided using "flue gas desulphurisation" to clean up the gases before they are released into the atmosphere. This method uses limestone, and produces gypsum for the building industry as a by-product. However, it uses a lot of limestone. Crude oil (called "petroleum") is easier to get out of the ground than coal, as it can flow along pipes. This also makes it cheaper to transport. Below is the energy chain.
http://www.darvill.clara.net/altenerg/fossil.htm Accessed on 4/26/12
Natural gas provides around 24% of the world's consumption of energy, and as well as being burnt in power stations, is used by many people to heat their homes. It is easy to transport along pipes, and gas power stations produce comparatively little pollution.
Other fossil fuels are being investigated, such as bituminous sands and oil shale. The difficulty is that they need expensive processing before we can use them; however Canada has large reserves of 'tar sands' , which makes it economic for them to produce a great deal of energy this way. As far as we know, there is still a lot of oil in the ground. But although oil wells are easy to tap when they're almost full, it's much more difficult to get the oil up later on when there's less oil down there. That's one reason why we're increasingly looking at these other fossil fuels.
http://energybulletin.net/primer.php Accessed on 4/26/12
Peak oil is the simplest label for the problem of energy resource depletion, or more specifically, the peak in global oil production. Oil is a finite, non-renewable resource, one that has powered phenomenal economic and population growth over the last century and a half. The rate of oil 'production', meaning extraction and refining (currently about 85 million barrels/day), has grown almost every year of the last century. Once we have used up about half of the original reserves, oil production becomes ever more likely stop growing and begin a terminal decline, hence 'peak'. The peak in oil production does not signify 'running out of oil', but it does mean the end of cheap oil, as we switch from a buyers' to a sellers' market. For economies leveraged on ever increasing quantities of cheap oil, the consequences may be dire. Without significant successful cultural reform, severe economic and social consequences seem inevitable.
Energy Conservation
Energy conservation refers to efforts made to reduce energy consumption. Energy conservation can be achieved through increased efficient energy use, in conjunction with decreased energy consumption and/or reduced consumption from conventional energy sources. An energy conservation act was passed in 2001. Energy conservation can result in increased financial capital, environmental quality, national security, personal security, and human comfort. Individuals and organizations that are direct consumers of energy choose to conserve energy to reduce energy costs and promote economic security. Industrial and commercial users can increase energy use efficiency to maximize profit. By reducing emissions, energy conservation is an important part of lessening climate change.
Energy conservation facilitates the replacement of non-renewable resources with renewable energy. Energy conservation is often the most economical solution to energy shortages, and is a more environmentally being alternative to increased energy production. Energy Intensity is a measurement or amount of energy needed to provide goods and services. Even though this number has declined, prices have risen sharply. So how can you help to conserve energy? Here are some helpful hints I found at... http://www.ecomall.com/greenshopping/20things.htm Home appliances
*Turn your refrigerator down. Refrigerators account for about 20% of Household electricity use. Use a thermometer to set your refrigerator temperature as close to 37 degrees and your freezer as close to 3 degrees as possible. Make sure that its energy saver switch is turned on. Also, check the gaskets around your refrigerator/freezer doors to make sure they are clean and sealed tightly.
*Set your clothes washer to the warm or cold water setting, not hot. Switching from hot to warm for two loads per week can save nearly 500 pounds of CO2 per year if you have an electric water heater, or 150 pounds for a gas heater.
*Make sure your dishwasher is full when you run it and use the energy saving setting, if available, to allow the dishes to air dry. You can also turn off the drying cycle manually. Not using heat in the drying cycle can save 20 percent of your dishwasher's total electricity use.
*Turn down your water heater thermostat. Thermostats are often set to 140 degrees F when 120 is usually fine. Each 10 degree reduction saves 600 pounds of CO2 per year for an electric water heater, or 440 pounds for a gas heater. If every household turned its water heater thermostat down 20 degrees, we could prevent more than 45 million tons of annual CO2 emissions - the same amount emitted by the entire nations of Kuwait or Libya.
*Select the most energy-efficient models when you replace your old appliances. Look for the Energy Star Label - your assurance that the product saves energy and prevents pollution. Buy the product that is sized to your typical needs - not the biggest one available. Front loading washing machines will usually cut hot water use by 60 to 70% compared to typical machines. Replacing a typical 1973 refrigerator with a new energy-efficient model, saves 1.4 tons of CO2 per year. Investing in a solar water heater can save 4.9 tons of CO2 annually.
Home Heating and Cooling
*Be careful not to overheat or overcool rooms. In the winter, set your thermostat at 68 degrees in daytime, and 55 degrees at night. In the summer, keep it at 78. Lowering your thermostat just two degrees during winter saves 6 percent of heating-related CO2 emissions. That's a reduction of 420 pounds of CO2 per year for a typical home.
*Clean or replace air filters as recommended. Energy is lost when air conditioners and hot-air furnaces have to work harder to draw air through dirty filters. Cleaning a dirty air conditioner filter can save 5 percent of the energy used. That could save 175 pounds of CO2 per year.
Small investments that pay off
*Buy energy-efficient compact fluorescent bulbs for your most-used lights. Although they cost more initially, they save money in the long run by using only 1/4 the energy of an ordinary incandescent bulb and lasting 8-12 times longer. They provide an equivalent amount of bright, attractive light. Only 10% of the energy consumed by a normal light bulb generates light. The rest just makes the bulb hot. If every American household replaced one of its standard light bulbs with an energy efficient compact fluorescent bulb, we would save the same amount of energy as a large nuclear power plant produces in one year. In a typical home, one compact fluorescent bulb can save 260 pounds of CO2 per year.
*Wrap your water heater in an insulating jacket, which costs just $10 to $20. It can save 1100 lbs. of CO2 per year for an electric water heater, or 220 pounds for a gas heater.
*Use less hot water by installing low-flow shower heads. They cost just $10 to $20 each, deliver an invigorating shower, and save 300 pounds of CO2 per year for electrically heated water, or 80 pounds for gas-heated water.
*Weatherize your home or apartment, using caulk and weather stripping to plug air leaks around doors and windows. Caulking costs less than $1 per window, and weather stripping is under $10 per door. These steps can save up to 1100 pounds of CO2 per year for a typical home. Ask your utility company for a home energy audit to find out where your home is poorly insulated or energy inefficient. This service may be provided free or at low cost. Make sure it includes a check of your furnace and air conditioning.
Getting around
*Whenever possible, walk, bike, car pool, or use mass transit. Every gallon of gasoline you save avoids 22 pounds of CO2 emissions. If your car gets 25 miles per gallon, for example, and you reduce your annual driving from 12,000 to 10,000 miles, you'll save 1800 pounds of CO2.
*When you next buy a car, choose one that gets good mileage. If your new car gets 40 miles per gallon instead of 25, and you drive 10,000 miles per year, you'll reduce your annual CO2 emissions by 3,300 pounds.
Reduce, reuse, recycle
*Reduce the amount of waste you produce by buying minimally packaged goods, choosing reusable products over disposable ones, and recycling. For every pound of waste you eliminate or recycle, you save energy and reduce emissions of CO2 by at least 1 pound. *Cutting down your garbage by half of one large trash bag per week saves at least 1100 pounds of CO2 per year. Making products with recycled materials, instead of from scratch with raw materials, uses 30 to 55% less for paper products, 33% less for glass, and a whopping 90% less for aluminum.
*If your car has an air conditioner, make sure its coolant is recovered and recycled whenever you have it serviced. In the United States, leakage from auto air conditioners is the largest single source of emissions of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which damage the ozone layer as well as add to global warming. The CFCs from one auto air conditioner can add the equivalent of 4800 pounds of CO2 emissions per year.
Home Improvements.
*When you plan major home improvements, consider some of these energy saving investments. They save money in the long run, and their CO2 savings can often be measured in tons per year.
*Insulate your walls and ceilings. This can save 20 to 30 percent of home heating bills and reduce CO2 emissions by 140 to 2100 pounds per year. If you live in a colder climate, consider superinsulating. That can save 5.5 tons of CO2 per year for gas-heated homes, 8.8 tons per year for oil heat, or 23 tons per year for electric heat. (If you have electric heat, you might also consider switching to more efficient gas or oil.
*Modernize your windows. Replacing all your ordinary windows with argon filled, double-glazed windows saves 2.4 tons of CO2 per year for homes with gas heat, 3.9 tons of oil heat, and 9.8 tons for electric heat.
*Plant shade trees and paint your house a light color if you live in a warm climate, or a dark color if you live in a cold climate. Reductions in energy use resulting from shade trees and appropriate painting can save up to 2.4 tons of CO2 emissions per year. (Each tree also directly absorbs about 25 pounds of CO2 from the air annually.)
Business and community
*Work with your employer to implement these and other energy-efficiency and waste-reduction measures in your office or workplace. Form or join local citizens' groups and work with local government officials to see that these measures are taken in schools and public buildings.
*Keep track of the environmental voting records of candidates for office. Stay abreast of environmental issues on both local and national levels, and write or call your elected officials to express your concerns about energy efficiency and global warming.
Promoting the green design, construction, renovation and operation of buildings could cut North American greenhouse gas emissions that are fueling climate change more deeply, quickly and cheaply than any other available measure. "Improving our built environment is probably the single greatest opportunity to protect and enhance the natural environment. Environmental progress throughout North America--mostly using the tools and technology we have on hand today," says CEC (Commission for Environmental Cooperation) Executive Director Adrián Vázquez. "Green building represents some of the ripest 'low-hanging fruit' for achieving significant reductions in climate change emissions."
In the United States, buildings account for:
40 percent of total energy use;
12 percent of the total water consumption;
68 percent of total electricity consumption;
38 percent of total carbon dioxide emissions; and
60 percent of total non-industrial waste generation.
Green building features can include high-tech, modern practices such as (to name only a few) sensor-controlled and compact fluorescent lighting, high-efficiency heat pumps, geothermal heating, photovoltaic cell arrays and solar chimneys, on-site cleaning and reuse of wastewater; as well as simple and often time-tested practices like attention to building orientation and design, increased use of fresh air and natural light, improved insulation, radiant cooling systems that take advantage of naturally occurring conditions, managed forest or salvaged lumber products, recycled concrete aggregates, green roofs, rainwater collection, waterless urinals, facilities for bicyclists, permeable pavers, cork flooring, and use of local products.
Cogeneration (also combined heat and power, CHP) is the use of a heat engine or a power station to simultaneously generate both electricity and useful heat. This almost doubles the amount of energy used from the primary fuel. We could save and produce 20% of America's needs with this technology.
Environmental Health and Toxicology
Defeating the Fiery Serpent
or Dracunculus Mediensis
After decades of civil war in Africa, the return of peace is allowing health workers to strengthen their fight against Guinea worm disease.Guinea worm is contracted by drinking contaminated water. The worms grow in the body for about a year and then emerge slowly, for weeks, through painful skin blisters that incapacitate and sometimes cripple their victims. People infected with Guinea worm spread the disease when they immerse their blisters in water and allow the worm to contaminate it with new larvae, continuing its life cycle. But Guinea worm has now retreated to only a few African countries, the result of a 22-year eradication campaign led by former U.S. President Jimmy Carter and the Atlanta-based Carter Center.
Carter was motivated when he saw its victims in Africa. “It was a horrible disease, almost indescribably bad,” he says. “It was an ancient disease, it didn't seem to have any solution, and so it was an almost insurmountable problem. That’s why we decided to try to solve it.” Guinea worm afflicted millions two decades ago, but in 2010 fewer than 2,000 cases were reported – most of them in Sudan. The director of the Guinea Worm Program at the Carter Center, Ernesto Ruiz-Tiben, says, “Sudan is the last big bastion of Guinea worm disease in the world, and therefore is the most important repository of Guinea worm disease anywhere.” In southern Sudan, health workers from The Carter Center are working with government authorities to attack Guinea worm where it thrives, in poor villages that rely on contaminated water. Below is a worm making it's way out...
http://ocw.jhsph.edu/imageLibrary/index.cfm/go/il.viewImageDetails/resourceID/A6935875-E4E4-6204-CC851D55511DC14E/ Accessed 4/30/12
Their strategy is the same that they have used everywhere that Guinea worm has been eliminated: public education to prevent contamination of water; supplying millions of water filters; applying safe chemical treatment to water sources; and providing safe water from underground wells. Villagers say they once believed Guinea worm was caused by witchcraft, or by eating spoiled meat, but now they say they understand the origin of the parasite that has tormented them for thousands of years; communities are now cooperating with health authorities to isolate the disease, breaking the life cycle of the worm and driving it to extinction.
Environmental Health
Environmental health focuses on factors that cause disease including elements of the natural, social, cultural and technological worlds in which we live. These sources of environmental health risks include: Toxins; Infectious agents; radiations; trauma and pollution.
In rich and poor countries alike, health needs are changing in response to lower fertility rates, longer life expectancies, and the shifting burden of illness toward chronic diseases and injuries. These demographic and epidemiological transitions will pose health challenges for countries at every income level. In high-income countries, aging populations, rapidly increasing health costs, and shrinking numbers in the workforce will put increasing pressure on publicly financed health care systems. In some middle income countries and in most low-income countries, which already are hard pressed to provide even the most basic health services, meeting projected health needs is likely to require additional funds from external financing sources.
Most developing countries are currently confronting a significant challenge because of a continued high burden of communicable diseases. These diseases—particularly malaria, tuberculosis, and HIV/AIDS—pose a serious challenge for public health and health systems in many low-income countries and some middle income countries. An estimated 80 percent of the deaths due to HIV/AIDS in 2003 occurred in Sub-Saharan Africa, and 90 percent of total deaths due to malaria occurred there as well (WHO 2003; UNAIDS 2003). Furthermore, the incidence of tuberculosis in Sub-Saharan Africa is the highest in the world (WHO 2004).
http://www.ceche.org/programs/globalhealth/globalhealth.html Accessed on 4/30/12
New and emerging diseases, combined with the rapid spread of pathogens resistant to antibiotics and of disease-carrying insects resistant to insecticides, are daunting challenges to human health. The new diseases range from AIDS to little-known but equally lethal viral infections. In many cases, their source is unknown, as is the reason for their emergence. More often than not, no specific treatment is yet available for them. Antibiotic resistance in hospitals worldwide threatens to leave medical and public health workers virtually helpless in the prevention or treatment of many infections. Many of the most powerful antibiotics have been rendered impotent. Disastrously, this is happening at a time when too few new drugs are being developed to replace those that have lost their effectiveness. In the contest for supremacy, the microbes are sprinting ahead. The gap between their ability to mutate into drug-resistant strains and man's ability to counter them is widening fast.
Toxicology
Toxic means poisonous.
Toxicology is the study of the adverse effects of external factors on an organism or a system. This includes environmental chemicals, drugs, and diet as well as physical factors, such as ionizing radiation, UV light, and electromagnetic forces. Toxins often are harmful even in extremely dilute concentrations. In some cases, billionths, or even trillionths, of a gram can cause irreversible damage.
Formaldehyde is a good example of a widely used chemical that is a powerful sensitizer of the immune system. Widely used in plastics, wood products, insulation, glue, and fabrics, formaldehyde concentrations in indoor air can be thousands of times higher than in normal outdoor air. Sick building syndrome: headaches, allergies, and chronic fatigue caused by poorly vented indoor air contaminated by various contaminants.
The Endocrine System
http://www.epa.gov/endo/pubs/edspoverview/whatare.htm Accessed on 4/30/12
Endocrine hormone disrupters, chemicals that inturrupt the normal endocrine hormone functions, are one of the most recently recognized environmental threats. New information is continually emerging about the natural and synthetic chemicals people and industries use every day and dispose of down their drains and toilets. Research shows that endocrine disruptors may pose the greatest risk to offspring during prenatal and early postnatal development when organ and neural systems are developing. However, adverse consequences may not be apparent until much later in life. In addition, endocrine disruptors may affect not just the offspring of mothers exposed to endocrine disruptors during pregnancy, but future offspring as well.
Indoor air can have higher concentrations of toxins than outdoor air. Ironically, these chemical toxins come from the products we use to make our lives better. Homes and home furnishings in North America today are built of materials sourced world-wide. Materials standards are not adequately harmonized between nations, and commercial interests often override health concerns associated with many products, in part because related health problems may take years to develop and and be difficult to assign cause. Yet the nationwide increase in immune system disorders, neurological problems, chronic fatigue syndrome, multiple chemical sensitivities, allergies and hormonal disturbances point to environmental factors. A 2004 report by the British Medical Journal states “it is clear that environmental and lifestyle factors are key determinants of human disease accounting for perhaps 75% of most cancers.” And estimates show most Americans have somewhere between 400 and 800 chemicals stored in their bodies, typically in fat cells. Because effects from exposure to toxins are difficult to identify, it can be years before problems from exposure manifest themselves as a disease or chronic ailment. In the US, the EPA does screen many products for some toxins, but until needed revisions to the Toxic Substances Control Act are enacted by Congress, many loopholes in the system leave the burden of responsibility on the consumer to make informed decisions through reading individual product MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheets), following recommendations from agencies like Consumer Reports, or by studying product literature. Realistically, most consumers are unable or do not have the time or expertise to monitor products and materials for hazardous material content. But there a few simple strategies, which can be taken, to reduce exposure to toxins in the home.
-Know the most common toxins that are found in homes today
-Find safe substitutes, mitigate the hazard or do without the product
-Ventilate your home regularly, especially during winter months.
Movement, Distribution, and Fate of Toxins
Toxins move back and forth between organisms and the environment. Factors affecting toxicity include:
– dose (amount)
– route of entry
– timing of exposure
– sensitivity of the organisms
There are
many routes of entry for toxins to enter our body.
Air- We
breathe more air than food or drink we take in, the lining of the lungs absorb
toxics readily, Epidemiologists estimate 3 million people, 2/3 of them
children, die each year from diseases caused by or heightened by air pollution
Food
Water
Skin Contact
Chemicals can be divided into two major groups:
– Water soluble compounds move rapidly and widely through the environment because
water is ubiquitous.
– Molecules that are oil- or fat-soluble (usually organic molecules) generally need a carrier to move through the environment and into or within the body.
There are many routes for toxins to enter our bodies. Airborne toxins generally cause more ill health than any other exposure source. But, food, water, and skin contact can also expose us to a wide variety of hazards. Age matters and general health matters: healthy adults, for example, may be relatively insensitive to doses that are very dangerous to young children or to someone already weakened by other diseases.
Bioaccumulation is defined as the increase in concentration of a substance(s) in an organism or a part of that organism. Toxic substances are lipophilic or fat-loving, the reason why these substances are deposited and concentrated in the fat tissues of the organisms. The affected organism has a higher concentration of the substance than the concentration in the organism's surrounding environment. The toxic substances are very slowly metabolized or excreted so if the organism keeps on consuming prey or food contaminated with toxic substances, the concentration of the substance will further increase in its body, hence, bioaccumulation results. When a certain threshold level is reached, measured in parts per million (ppm), symptoms due to the type of toxin are manifested. Bioaccumulation varies among individual organisms as well as among species. Large, fat, long-lived individuals or species with low rates of metabolism or excretion of a chemical will bioaccumulate more than small, thin, short-lived organisms. Thus, an old lake trout may bioaccumulate much more than a young bluegill in the same lake.
Some materials produce antagonistic reactions. That is, they interfere with the effects or stimulate the breakdown of other chemicals. (1+1=0)
Other materials are additive when they occur together in exposures. (1+1=4)
Synergism is an interaction in which one substance exacerbates the effects of another. Meaning, we need to be educated about what we do with ourselves and our earth!
Bioaccumulation is defined as the increase in concentration of a substance(s) in an organism or a part of that organism. Toxic substances are lipophilic or fat-loving, the reason why these substances are deposited and concentrated in the fat tissues of the organisms. The affected organism has a higher concentration of the substance than the concentration in the organism's surrounding environment. The toxic substances are very slowly metabolized or excreted so if the organism keeps on consuming prey or food contaminated with toxic substances, the concentration of the substance will further increase in its body, hence, bioaccumulation results. When a certain threshold level is reached, measured in parts per million (ppm), symptoms due to the type of toxin are manifested. Bioaccumulation varies among individual organisms as well as among species. Large, fat, long-lived individuals or species with low rates of metabolism or excretion of a chemical will bioaccumulate more than small, thin, short-lived organisms. Thus, an old lake trout may bioaccumulate much more than a young bluegill in the same lake.
http://www.mercuryinschools.uwex.edu/curriculum/hg_in_env.htm Accessed on 4/30/12
Biomagnification is also called Bioamplification. It is simply the increase in concentration of a substance in a food chain, not an organism. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are compounds that biomagnify. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are chemical substances that persist in the environment. These substances bioaccumulate through the food web and pose risk not only to humans but also other living organisms because of their adverse effects. These pollutants consist of pesticides (such as DDT), industrial chemicals (such as polychlorinated biphenyls, PCBs) and unintentional by-products of industrial processes (such as dioxins and furans). In essence, biomagnification is similar to bioaccumulation but is descriptive of higher level biological processes, not individual.Some materials produce antagonistic reactions. That is, they interfere with the effects or stimulate the breakdown of other chemicals. (1+1=0)
Other materials are additive when they occur together in exposures. (1+1=4)
Synergism is an interaction in which one substance exacerbates the effects of another. Meaning, we need to be educated about what we do with ourselves and our earth!
Environmental Policy and Sustainability
The Clean Water Act
A little humor before we start!
http://www.motifake.com/137780 Accessed on 5/3/12
How awesome is the picture above...I couldn't imagine! The Clean Water Act (CWA) establishes the basic structure for regulating discharges of pollutants into the waters of the United States and regulating quality standards for surface waters. The basis of the CWA was enacted in 1948 and was called the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, (which our book fails to mention) but the Act was significantly reorganized and expanded during 1969- 1972, during Nixon’s Presidency. The "Clean Water Act" became the Act's common name with amendments in 1972, after a terrible accident that spilt oil on California beaches leaving them disgusting, and full of oil.
http://www.mtlebanon.org/index.aspx?NID=448 Accessed on 5/3/12
There is no doubt in my mind we have some of the cleanest tap water here in the U.S. It is controlled more then bottled water, needless to say we make tea and ice with it...still drinking bottled water because it is easy on the go! This act still allows people to dump in water with reason, so the really bad toxins are outlawed. The CWA made it unlawful to discharge any pollutant from a point source into navigable waters, unless a permit was obtained. EPA's National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit program controls discharges. Point sources are discrete conveyances such as pipes or man-made ditches. Individual homes that are connected to a municipal system, use a septic system, or do not have a surface discharge do not need an NPDES permit; however, industrial, municipal, and other facilities must obtain permits if their discharges go directly to surface waters.
Environmental Policy and Law
Environmental Policy involves rules and regulations designed to protect the environment and public wealth. Dealing with human-accelerated environmental change requires better communication among scientists, managers, policy makers, the media, and the public. Considerable time may elapse between detecting environmental problems and taking political action. Worldwide, acid rain continues to be a major environmental issue, and in North America it may have become even more serious than when the Clean Air Act Amendments were passed by the US Congress in 1990. Scientists need to demonstrate ethical behavior and have unassailable data, perseverance, good communication skills, and an understanding of policy to be effective transmitters of scientific information.
Made by myself...
When making public decisions cost is always a factor. Prior to making any public decisions or taking on a new project, prudent managers will conduct a cost-benefit analysis as a means of evaluating all of the potential costs and revenues that may be generated if the project is completed. The outcome of the analysis will determine whether the project is financially feasible, or if another project should be pursued.
Major Environmental Laws
The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) is a United States environmental law that established a U.S. national policy promoting the enhancement of the environment and also established the President's Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) in 1969. NEPA's most significant effect was to set up procedural requirements for all federal government agencies to prepare Environmental Assessments (EAs) and Environmental Impact Statements (EISs). EAs and EISs contain statements of the environmental effects of proposed federal agency actions. NEPA's procedural requirements apply to all federal agencies in the executive branch. NEPA does not apply to the President, to Congress, or to the federal courts.
The Clean Air Act is a United States federal law designed to control air pollution on a national level. It requires the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to develop and enforce regulations to protect the general public from exposure to airborne contaminants that are known to be hazardous to human health. The 1963 Act established a basic research program, which was expanded in 1967. The major amendments to the law, requiring regulatory controls for air pollution, were enacted in 1970, 1977 and 1990. The 1970 amendments greatly expanded the federal mandate by requiring comprehensive federal and state regulations for both stationary (industrial) pollution sources and mobile sources. Federal enforcement authority was also significantly expanded.
The Clean Water Act is the primary federal law in the United States governing water pollution. Commonly abbreviated as the CWA, the act established the goals of eliminating releases of high amounts of toxic substances into water, eliminating additional water pollution by 1985, and ensuring that surface waters would meet standards necessary for human sports and recreation by 1983. The principal body of law currently in effect is based on the Federal Water Pollution Control Amendments of 1972 and was significantly expanded from the Federal Water Pollution Control Amendments of 1948. Major amendments were enacted in the Clean Water Act of 1977 and the Water Quality Act of 1987. The Clean Water Act does not directly address groundwater contamination. Groundwater protection provisions are included in the Safe Drinking Water Act, Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, and the Superfund act.
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The Endangered Species Act of 1973 is one of the dozens of United States environmental laws passed in the 1970s. It helps save animals like the one above, the Ferruginous Pygmy Owl(Glaucidium brasilianum). It was signed into law by President Richard Nixon on December 28, 1973, it was designed to protect critically imperiled species from extinction as a "consequence of economic growth and development untempered by adequate concern and conservation." The Act is administered by two federal agencies, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The predecessor of the ESA was the Endangered Species Preservation Act of 1966. It authorized the Secretary of the Interior to list endangered domestic fish and wildlife and allowed the United States Fish and Wildlife Service to spend up to $15 million per year to buy habitats for listed species. It also directed federal land agencies to preserve habitat on their lands. Other public agencies were encouraged, but not required, to protect species. The act did not address the commerce in endangered species and parts. In March, 1967 the first list of endangered species was issued under the act. It included 14 mammals, 36 birds, 6 reptiles and amphibians and 22 fish.
Superfund is the common name for the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA), a United States federal law designed to clean up sites contaminated with hazardous substances. Superfund created the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), and it provides broad federal authority to clean up releases or threatened releases of hazardous substances that may endanger public health or the environment. The law authorized the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to identify parties responsible for contamination of sites and compel the parties to clean up the sites. Where responsible parties cannot be found, the Agency is authorized to clean up sites itself, using a special trust fund.
How Are Policies Made
Federal laws (statutes) are enacted by Congress and signed by the President. Where the Executive and Legislative branches are elected by the people, members of the Judicial Branch are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Most laws in the United States begin as bills. A bill begins with an idea. That idea can come from anyone—including you! The idea is sent to Congress, where a Member of the U.S. House of Representatives researches the idea and writes a bill. Once the bill is written, it is placed in the hopper, and introduced to the rest of the Members of the U.S. House of Representatives. The Members debate the bill, and then vote on whether it should become a law or not using the electronic voting system. After the bill has passed in the House, it is sent to the U.S. Senate. The Members of the Senate debate, and vote on the bill. If the bill passes, it is sent to the President of the United States for approval; White House pictured below.
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Once the President signs the bill, it is a law. Now that the bill has become a law, it is a rule that all Americans must follow. Civil law, as opposed to criminal law, is the branch of law dealing with disputes between individuals or organizations, in which compensation may be awarded to the victim. For instance, if a car crash victim claims damages against the driver for loss or injury sustained in an accident, this will be a civil law case. The law relating to civil wrongs and quasi-contract is part of the civil law.
International Policies
Although the modern environmental movement is considered less than a half-century old, environmental issues warrant daily political attention and media coverage in many areas of the world. As awareness of environmental problems grows, countries frequently find that many problems-ranging from preserving wetlands and wildlife to protecting the global atmosphere -cannot be solved through domestic policy alone. Achieving successful solutions to such problems requires the cooperation of nations with differing values, priorities, resources, and levels of wealth. In some issue areas, nations have reached international agreements; in others, treaties remain elusive. Addressing such crucial problems requires an understanding of causality, the ability to weigh environmental concerns with other considerations, and an appreciation for differing viewpoints on the environment. Most people would agree that environmental problems should be solved; differences of opinion emerge over the issues of how much cost should be dedicated to solving these problems and how to solve them most effectively. This module encourages students to think critically about environmental problems, to consider multiple viewpoints on proposed policies to improve the environment, and to identify the policies that will be most effective in accomplishing the desired goal.
http://www.unep.org/ Accessed 5/3/12
United Nations Environment Program, environment for development is promoting informed decision-making to enhance global and regional environmental cooperation. The global environmental governance architecture includes more than 500 Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs). A recent study shows that between the years 1992-2007 the parties of eighteen major MEAs were called for 540 meetings at which 5,084 decisions were taken. With policy action to improve freshwater supplies for drinking, sanitation, and hygiene purposes, as many as 135 million deaths could be prevented by 2020. Improving the global environmental governance structure of the Earth's natural resources is a practical imperative, as almost half the jobs worldwide depend on fisheries, forests or agriculture.
What Can Individuals Do?
Well for starters you can visit this site http://www.zennioptical.com/ to enter a contest with the UNEP, all about World Environment Day. Education and knowledge is key. Take care of your body and your surroundings. Visit the internet for ideas or to post your own. There are millions of groups from small to large to get involved in or make your own!
Make Earth Day Everyday
